Comparative negligence of a child Essay

So†¦what do you think about this defense? Do you think it’s viable? Are there other things to consider?   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Unfortunately, it is a viable defense.   At least there are legal precedents and provisions for contributory negligence.   But i always that defense was mostly used in business to business contract disputes.   I thought it worked this way: if company A hires company B to do, say, a financial audit.   If company A doesn’t give B all of its records, and then sues them for giving the wrong audit position, then company contributed to the wrongdoing by NOT giving company B the records it needed. Also, considering that this is a 7 year old, the question becomes what 7 year old is beyond negligence.   As adults we have a higher responsibility than children.   I would say that only adults can truly be guilty of contributory negligence.   The main thing to consider is that the driver was drunk.   What could any 7 year old (or 17 or 70 year old) do to ward off a drunk driver.   If he lost control due to his drunkeness there was nothing that child could have done except stay in the house.   And that is unreasonable.   No jury should award in their favor or against the defendant. Pre-Judgment versus Post-Judgment Interest (Response Question) Make sense?   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The interest makes sense.   What doesn’t make sense is that there is no precedent or clarification on how the interest is actually calculated.   That is where a good lawyer comes in.   He/she would have to specify how they want it done in the initial lawsuit.   I think that interest on awarded damages gives the recipient an opportunity to be compensated for the time it takes to complete the suit and transfer the money. After 4 years the interest really isn’t pocket money, it is just adjusting the award for inflation.   The other thing interest does is allow you to get more money than would normally be allowed in a particular type of lawsuit.   I think that courts should make uniform rules for the interest rate that can be awarded on specific cases, and set rules on how it will be calculated to prevent further bickering between the parties, and further appeals over the interest that has to be paid.

Mergers & Acquisitions Paper Essay

Mergers and acquisitions is an important aspect of corporate strategy, finance and management. This is done with the buying, selling, dividing and combining of different companies and similar entities. It can help an enterprise grow rapidly in its sector as well as the new sector it just acquired without the hassle of creating a subsidiary from scratch. This activity is on the rise worldwide. According J. Finnegan in â€Å"Global Mergers and Acquisitions Activity Continue to Rise† article, this increase has been accompanied by the return of mega-deals (value exceeding $10 billion) driven primarily by large multinational corporations flush with cash in the U.S. Two of the biggest acquisitions in 2012 are from the Energy Industry and Tech industry where Duke Energy Corporation acquired Progress Energy Inc. and Google acquired Motorola Mobility. I) Duke Energy Corp. acquired Progress Engergy Inc. According to Yahoo finance, in the first case in the energy industry, when the merger was announced on January 10, 2011, the transaction value totaled $26 billion, including Progress Energy’s debt. Currently based on Duke Energy’s share price and including Progress Energy’s debt, the transaction is valued at about $32 billion. Duke Energy Corporation (DUK) announced that it has acquired Progress Energy Inc., effective July 2, 2012. The original Duke Engergy includes Duke Energy International, which operates power plants in Central and South America; Duke Energy Renewables, which develops and owns wind and solar projects in the U.S.; and Duke Energy’s Midwest generation and Duke Energy Retail, which generate, market and sell electricity in the Midwest. Now, the new entity has nearly $49 billion in market capitalization, total assets more than $100 billion and 7.1 million electric users in the Carolinas, Florida, Indiana, Kentucky and Ohio. The transaction makes Duke Energy the largest U.S. utility and increases its ability to build new power plants to meet future greenhouse-gas emissions limits. Earlier, Chicago-based Exelon Corporation (EXC) was the largest U.S. utility. The new company would be known as Duke Energy with headquarters in Charlotte, and substantial operations in Raleigh, North Carolina. Duke Energy would trade on the New York Stock Exchange under the symbol â€Å"DUK†. Pursuant to the merger deal, Progress Energy has become a wholly owned direct unit of Duke Energy. On a standalone basis, Duke Energy had an adjusted earnings per share guidance range of $1.40 – $1.45 for 2012. Under the terms of the merger agreement, each share of Progress Energy common stock has been converted into the right to receive 0.87083 shares of Duke Energy common stock. Due to the effect of the 1-for-3 reverse stock split, which was completed related to this merger transaction, this guidance range is the equivalent of $4.20 – $4.35 per share. The combined company continues to target 2012 adjusted earnings per share range of $4.20 – $4.35. The reverse stock split is designed to reduce the number of outstanding Duke Energy shares. The merger is expected to keep the company’s long-term goal of 4% – 6% growth in good shape. Overall, their strong balance sheet, ongoing capital expansion projects and an above average dividend yield are very good signs that this merger and acquisition is working well for them. II) Google acquired Motorola Mobility One of the world’s most valuable brand name in the tech industry is Google, Inc. – a silicon valley native company. Founded in 1988 out of a garage, it has now become the largest and most popular search engine on the Internet. Its strong growth is credited to its creative, think outside the box and risk-taking culture. In recent years, it has been involved in a lot of new ventures and mergers and acquisitions with different industries to expand its operation. One of its new product is the Android operating system offered for free to smartphone manufacturers to compete with the Apple iphone’s iOS system. Google has also been trying to produce and release its own smart phones but hasn’t met much success. In addition, it is facing the risk of many lawsuits relating to pattern with Apple. So in smart and bold move, Google has decided to acquire phone maker Motorola Mobility and completed this deal in May 2012 for a whopping $12.5 billion which makes it the largest Google acquisition ever! This will definitely push it deeper into the fast growing cell phones industry. Motorola Mobility used to be a strong player in the cell phone industry but in recent years, it has struggled and suffered constantly. As its line of smartphones has waned in popularity, Motorola Mobility has suffered losses totaling $1.7 billion during the past three years while Google has earned a total of $25 billion over the same stretch. The acquisition is largely a defensive one from Google’s perspective. Google needs Motorola’s trove of 17,000 cellphone patents (plus an extra 7.500 that are awaiting approval) to defend Android phones against lawsuits by Apple, which accuses them of copying iPhone features. It’s now playing in Apple territory. Buying Motorola gives Google the ability to control both hardware and software, by making its own integrated smartphones and other devices. Under the term of the acquisition, Google will acquired all outstanding common shares of Motorola for $40 per share and transaction costs were $50 million. Out of the 12.4 billion total purchase price, goodwill takes up to $2.6 billion, patterns takes up to $5.5 billion with only $670 million to other net assets. Although it initially was drawn to Motorola Mobility for its patents, Google has been signaling recently that it has been drawing up more ambitious plans for Motorola Mobility. Besides producing smartphones and tablet computers, Motorola Mobility also makes cable-TV boxes that could provide Google with a springboard for delivering more of its services, including advertising, to living rooms. References Goldman , David. â€Å"Google seals $13 billion Motorola buy.† 22 2012: n. page. Print. . â€Å"Google completes $12.5B acquisition of phone maker Motorola Mobility after China clears deal .† 22 2012: n. page. Web. 25 Oct. 2012. . Finnegan, Jim. â€Å"Global mergers and acquisitions activity continues to rise.† 24 2011: n. page. Web. 25 Oct. 2012. .

How Organisms Cope With Biotic Environmental Factors Essay

How Organisms Cope With Biotic Environmental Factors - Essay Example Initially, organisms could survive without oxygen but with the evolution of the life forms, oxygen became inevitable for survival, which could be understood with the help of soft-bodied metazoans. This aids in the development of oxygen growth curve. On the other hand, ozone provides a shield that protects the biotic forms from harmful UV radiations of sunlight, without this shield life would have been impossible on the planet. Evolution of biotic forms from simple to the complex took place in a gradual manner. Single-celled life forms interact with each other, such interaction resulted in an evolutionary impact, as various species evolved due to such meaningful interactions, namely, symbiotic associations and other interactions, animal diversity prevailed. Evolution in life forms generated competition for food and shelter. Those who could survive the competition were considered as evolved and supreme. These organisms started adapting themselves to the environmental modifications and to the kind of food available, consequently, further diverse forms evolved. Eventually, some of the organisms migrated to land and demarcated themselves as land animals while others remained as sea animals. Over the eras, both these forms developed into numerous life forms from Prokaryotes to eukaryotes encompassing invertebrates protists, fungi, to vertebrates encompassing fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals. Q. 3. Give a detailed account of the structure and differentiation of the fungi. Fungi are the eukaryotic life forms, they occur in filamentous form with the rigid cell wall of chitin (chain of N-acetylglucosamine), and yeast forms with a cell wall made up of mannose, but are devoid of chlorophyll. They are saprophytic, free-living organisms and derive their nutrition from dead, organic matter, by breaking down of complex chemical macromolecules, leading to the spoilage of food, leather, and other organic matter. They diverged from animal Kingdom 1.5 billion years a go. Fungi exist in three forms, which are: 1. Unicellular forms, e.g., yeast, Saccharomyces cerevisiae (budding yeast). They possess oval, ellipsoidal or rod-shaped morphology. The size is larger than the bacterial cells, they grow on agar as compact colonies. They display asexual mode of reproduction with the birth scar on daughter cell while a bud scar on the mother cell. Budding could be multipolar or bipolar. However, there are certain organisms which are capable of modifying their morphology and physiology so as to form discrete structures such as spores. Further, a swing between the filamentous and yeast forms could also be displayed in Histoplasma capsulatum, these forms are directed by growth conditions such as temperature, nutrient, and oxygen availability. Filamentous in the soil, asexual reproduction leads to conidia formation. Conidia disperse spores which may reach the lungs if inhaled leading to tissue damage and lesions. The yeast form does not produce conidia. 2. Mou lds which are filamentous and proliferate as elongated and branched hyphae called mycelium, which may be vegetative hyphae or aerial hyphae. The growth of the mycelium occur at the tip, they have well-developed vacuoles and vesicles which are involved in elongation.

British cinema Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

British cinema - Essay Example The society is always grappling with a lot challenges such as poverty, poor governance, disasters and such challenges dictates the context within which the films are made with the aim that they will of making the society better (Ashby & Andrew, 2000). Whenever the audience watches the films on various themes there conscious is pricked, and they get empowered through such films to fight for a better society. The influence of film to the society cannot be overlooked. This begs the need for the directors and all other stakeholders in the film industry to up their game and ensure that their content is based on the realities that exist in the society with a view to making the society a better place to live in and exist. Synopsis of the films Loach directed, and Sally Hibbin produced the 1990 film Riff Raff. The main stars in the movie are Robert Carlyle and Rick Tomlinson. The movie was such a hit and won the coveted European Film Award in the year 1991. The character Stevie (Robert Carly le) is having a rough time in London and decides to secure employment at a site as a builder. Stevie soon begins (Brunsdon, 2007) to make friend s at the building site; he meets Shem, Mo, and Larry, who offer him an empty makeshift flat. Stevie later bumps into Susan (Emmer McCourt) an upcoming actor and musician. Stevie begins to help Susan to get some support from his workmates at the site. With time, Stevie and Susan move in together, and they appear to be happy at least for some time. Larry appears to be a gallant critique of the Conservative Party and Margret Thatcher, who is the Prime minister at the time. Larry seems to be on his own; the rest of the crew are not interested in discussing any political affairs. To them, politics do not help their situation. At the workplace, the crew is working under despicable conditions (Blandford, 2007). Workers safety is not the priority of the management; people have to endure longer working hours on a meager pay. Moreover, there is no jo b security; the workers are dismissed on baseless grounds. In the meantime, Susan's relationship with Stevie hit a dead end and the two-part ways. The workers can no longer take the harsh condition at the workplace, especially after the sudden death of their colleague who falls off from the rooftop. Stevie leads his colleagues to setting up the building of fire. In Raining Stones (1993), Ken Loach puts into perspective a story of a devoted man who despite coming from a humble background is very proud. He is Bob; he is determined against all odds to find his little girl an expensive dress as a gift for her First Communion. This, however, gets him into trouble; he resorts to desperate measures in a bid to raise the money to secure for her daughter the dress. His desperate pursuit of money puts casts him on the bad light and compromises his image in the society (Bazin, 2005). This movie is prejudging by the fact that it won the Jury Prize in its maiden year in 19993 at the â€Å"Canne s Film Festival. Socio-historical and institutional Background of the films The films do not concentrate on the visual style so much but rather on the challenges that the society is grappling with. Such social issues include housing problems, poverty, bad governance, and disasters. In the 1960s and 1970s Britain was not a democratized society as it is today. So most of the films produced around that time targeted to sensitize the society against such odds.

Special Interest Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Special Interest - Essay Example The company was established in 1911 and has continued delivering the best for more than a century. IBM currently operates in more than 170 countries and has massive employee strength. Over the years it has been a lucrative place for the employees to get associated with this global brand. The figures as of December, 2010 suggest that IBM has more than 426, 751 employees all round the globe (IBM Research Locations, n. d). In 2011, IBM was ranked as the 18th largest firm in the United States of America by Fortune The global ranking of the organization is also very impressive considering the fact that Fortune has listed it as the top organization in terms of leadership qualities exhibited by the organization. (About IBM, n. d) IBM organizes various training program on latest advancement in technology to its employees. The training process undertaken by the employees motivates them as it helps in the overall advancement of the career by adding value to their skills. The employees also feel that they can achieve the professional goals within the organization and thus creates a job satisfaction among them and they start performing better (Winning the Battle for Talent, n. d) IBM also stresses on the various activities among the employees so that their social needs are addressed in a better fashion and even engages the employees in various social activities so that they can feel to a vital part of the society.. Whenever a new employee joins in the organization in any country, IBM provides extensive training to the employees regarding the organizational culture, values and also regarding the process for which the employees are hired. The training process helps the employee to adjust themselves with the environ ment of the organization and gets a clear view of the role which he has to carry out. At the end of the training session, an assessment of the newly hired employee takes place to find out how well he had

Media, culture and society Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Media, culture and society - Essay Example The BBC is a non-commercial and the most well-known public service broadcaster (PSB) in the UK. However, it was with the launch of the first commercial broadcaster ITV in 1955, which made the government formulate certain rules, wherein, the broadcasters were obliged to show a certain level of local news coverage, arts and religious programming. Later, with the launch of other commercial television broadcasters, the government started PSB channels like Channel 4 and S4C. Channel 4 catered to the minorities and arts, whereas, S4C focused on Welch language programs. Later, Channel 4 went through a restructuring under the Broadcasting Act 1990. Even ITV is attempting to restructure its model by reducing unprofitable PSB programming. The major reason for these PSB channels to restructure is due to the increased competition from the digital and the multi-channel television. Recently, even Ofcom has come up with a consulting paper to decide on what direction the PSB channels should take in the near future. The Ofcom in its report assessed the effectiveness of the designated public service broadcasters - BBC, Channel 3, Channel 4, Five, S4C and Teletext - in delivering the public service purposes set out in the Communications Act in the UK. The report also analysed "how the quality of public service broadcasting can be maintained and strengthened in future." Ofcom set a new framework for PSB that would be adaptable to "respond to and reflect changing technologies, markets, and the needs of citizens and consumers." The Ofcom in its report recommended the formation of a new Public Service Publisher, which would be flexible enough to adapt to the constant changes witnessed in the media industry in the contemporary world. The report also addressed the issue of the governance of the BBC. It stated that the governance framework should "support a well-run, strong, independent and properly funded BBC which operates consistently in the public interest." However, Ofcom also demanded to have a greater clarity between the functions of internal governance, the accountability of publicly funded bodies in broadcasting and of regulation for the broadcasting sector as a whole. The BBC, developed under the first Director General of the channel Lord Reith, had the mission to inform, educate and entertain. Although, being funded by the government, the BBC tried to remain independent from the government's interference, which has made the BBC a respected organisation throughout the world. However, the danger of being influenced by the government and the upper-class society always lurks on an organisation funded by the government. Further, BBC has also earned the reputation for 'cultural paternalism' and being 'popular with the upper-middle-class viewers'. This is also being attacked by the left-wing critics of the media time and again. The first challenges to the BBC's monopoly came in the early 1950s in a report by Ronald Coase, an economist with the London School of Economics and Political Science. Coase in his paper "The British Broadcasting Corporation. A Study in Monopoly" (Coase 1950) identified two clusters of arguments supporting the BBC's monopoly i.e. arguments from technical and efficiency considerations and arguments from programming considerations. Later, former Prime Minister Thatcher, set up the Peacock Commission

Steel making Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Steel making - Essay Example The process of steel making process involves producing steel from either the ferrous scrap or from iron. During the steel making practice, there is the removal of excessive impurities, among which are silicon, nitrogen, carbon and phosphorous from raw iron, together with other elements of alloy like nickel, vanadium, chromium and manganese, for the production of different steel grades (Mohammed, Stephen, and Seetharaman 1566). The limitation of dissolved gases that include oxygen and nitrogen, as well as all other impurities entrained within steel is important for enhancing the product quality cast from the initial liquid state. Two important processes are involved in steel making; the electric arc furnace, and Basic Oxygen Steelmaking (BOS). The latter uses scrap steel and blast-based liquid pig-iron as the major feed materials, whereas the former makes use of the direct reduced iron or the scrap steel (Mao, Pan, Pang, and Chai 67). The oxygen steel making is exclusively fueled by the reaction’s exothermic nature within the vessels, while the electric arc furnace (EAF) process makes use of the electric energy for melting of the solid scrap material. Introduction of additional chemical energy for EAF processes has enhanced the evolution of the process to almost equal the technological expertise involved in oxygen steel making. The modern processes for steel making can be classified as primary or secondary. The primary steel making generally entails the conversion of liquid iron from an original steel scrap and blast furnace to steel by the melting of scrap, or basic oxygen steel making, and the use of direct reduced iron within the electric arc furnace (Seiji, Yoshiyuki, and Masuro 13). The secondary process of steel making, however, entails the refinery of crude steel prior to casting, and this involves numerous operations in the ladles. The addition of alloying agents occurs during the secondary metallurgy

Reflection and critical evaluation of performance, progress and Essay

Reflection and critical evaluation of performance, progress and learning - Essay Example There was a 25 day placement for the ‘WBL’ module and I used various methods to find a placement. I ended up looking at ‘The Sheffield Star’. I was lucky to find a job at ‘Matalan’. I attached my curriculum vitae in the form that I downloaded from the website of the company. After filling the form, I left it in the store. I was able to receive calls informing to come for an interview. I had been waiting anxiously hoping for the best. In one week time, I was able to receive a letter informing that I had successfully passed the interview and I was suppose to report after one week. My Performance on the job We are able to look back and learn through the practice and experience we have undergone mainly through reflective practice as confirmed by (Hartog, 2004: 2). My ‘Motivators’ were; the work itself, responsibilities, money, the star board in the staff room and my planned holiday. However Gearge (1996: 75) argues â€Å"Money is a tem porary motivator†. ... I was able to build a network with my colleagues strengthening the ties between us. I was encouraged by the network theory as expressed by Granovetter (1970). My colleagues were really impressed by the way I performed my activities making them to be close to me most of the time. I had a sense of belonging from the colleagues that encouraged me to effectively communicate with my colleagues (Hartog, 2004). Through effective communication I was able to know all employees that were in my in my department with their names. This enabled the job to be done effectively. The hygiene factors are necessary for the success of any job. This is due to the fact that every job requires workers who are healthy (Herzberg, 1959). I could not be able to work well if the health conditions were not of good quality. My performance at work was mainly encouraged by the presence of the salary. I knew it very well in my mid that without salary I could not work to my best. One thing that demotivated was the wor k conditions. The workstation that I had been assigned was small as compared to the ones of my colleagues. In every organization, supervision of the workers is necessary to improve the quality of work performance. This will enable the organization to be successful (Hartog, 2004). However, I didn’t have supervision and this affected my performance since I became reluctant. Due to the fact that there was no supervision, the understanding of the basic needs was not satisfied substantially as stated by theory of Maslow since I could not move up his hierarchy Maslow’s (1954). On the second week and particularly on day 14 I did not get any motivation. I knew that being ethical was the only motivation towards

Juvenile Justice Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Juvenile Justice - Coursework Example Prosecuting children and adolescents in the adult systems undermined justice. Following the pressures from various interest groups, the American legal system inextricably codified the views of stakeholders. The American legal system contains treaties with the interpretation that aim to protect the rights of children and adolescents. It exemplifies that the judicial systems must observe human rights of children and youths with a guarantee. In this respect, corpus juris is a source of legislation that establishes the codes of the subject of protection of adolescents and children. Delinquency has become inherently difficult to measure. Though criminal scientists have devised a means of measuring it such as self-reports, still there are definite drawbacks that these methods depict. The fault of the approach lies in data collection method and the reliability of the data. It is unlikely for the juveniles to provide truthful information about their delinquency to strangers. A juvenile may also forget, miscomprehend, lie or distort what transpired. For example, a self-report survey asks youths about their criminal behaviour and participation in delinquent activities over time. The researcher may request respondents to indict the number of times they have involved themselves in a number of offences such as forgery, weapon violation, gambling, or fighting. The options may be: Never, 1, 2-5, 6-9 and 20 or more. While some may forget and indicate a smaller number, some may exaggerate. The error leads to inaccuracies in the process of trying to measure

Disaster nursing and emergency preparedness Essay

Disaster nursing and emergency preparedness - Essay Example Furthermore, tertiary prevention is evident from restricting the reuse of gloves by the healthcare professionals and patients (Veenema, 2012). Innovative Examples One of the major consequences of a natural disaster like an earthquake is the loss of people especially including the loss of children. This creates an innovative opportunity for the nursing professionals to contribute in communicating to the family members of such people (Stanhope & Lancaster, 2014). Phase of the Disaster: Do the Three Proposed Interventions Fall The three proposed interventions fall under the phase of disaster management of nursing practice. The reason behind the selection of such phase is that it would provide a comprehensive nursing experience and exposure in different stressful circumstances (Veenema, 2012). People or Agencies Facilitate by the Proposed Interventions The proposed interventions undertaken during the nursing disaster management trip to Haiti would facilitate the healthcare professionals including doctors, nurses, and others to get practical understanding regarding management of patients in challenging situations. It would also facilitate the Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) and the government agencies to execute similar interventions in order to provide effective assistance to the affected people. This proposed intervention is extremely useful with regard to humanity. Moreover, these people or agencies are considerably related to disaster management at large (Stanhope & Lancaster, 2014).

What Are the Main Perspectives in the Study of Psychology Essay Example for Free

What Are the Main Perspectives in the Study of Psychology Essay What research methods are used to study these perspectives? Every topic in psychology can be looked at in a number of different ways and various different approaches can be adopted for each topic. These approaches are known as perspectives (i. e. view) that involve certain assumptions (i. e. beliefs) about human behaviour: the way they function, which aspects of them are worthy of study and what research methods are appropriate for undertaking this study. There may be several different theories within an approach but they all share the above common assumptions. Different perspectives have different research methods. The â€Å"Gloria Tapes† of 1975 are a good example of how different perspectives are used to address the same problems in a client’s life, as they are looking at her problems from different viewpoints (http://www. metafilter. com, accessed February 2012). For the purpose of this essay, we will be looking at the five main psychological perspectives. These include the psychodynamic, cognitive, behavioural, biological and humanistic perspectives. A wide range of research methods are used in psychology. In its simplest terms, Martin Shuttleworth (2008) defines research as â€Å"In the broadest sense of the word, the definition of research includes any gathering of data, information and facts for the advancement of knowledge† Types of research methods include laboratory and field experiments, case studies, correlations, interviews, observations and questionnaires. These research methods fall into two basic categories: quantitive and qualitive. Qualitative research gathers research that is not in numerical form and is useful for studies at the individual level (i. e. client centred therapy). Quantitive research gathers data in numerical form, which can be put into categories, in order or measured in units of measurement. This type of data can be used to construct graphs and tables of raw data. Experiments typically yield quantitative data (McLeod, S. A. 2007). This essay will now go on to explain the main perspectives in more detail and what different research methods are used for each perspective. The essay will end in a conclusion based on what has been discussed. Sigmund Freud was undoubtedly the main founder of psychodynamics. In 1900 he published his paper â€Å"interpretation of dreams† (Gross, R. 2001 page 15). This marked the beginning of psychoanalytical thought. Other psychiatrists who also helped strongly with the psychodynamic movement include Carl Jung, Alfred Adler and Melanie Klein. Freud’s psychoanalysis is the original psychodynamic theory and is based on the belief that events in our childhood can have a significant impact on our behaviour as adults. He believed that people had little free will to make choices in life (opposite to humanism) and instead, our behaviour is determined by the unconscious mind and childhood experiences. Freud explained the human mind like an iceberg, with only a small amount of it being visible (Gross, R. 001 page 15). Most of our thoughts and ideas are not accessible at that moment (pre – conscious) or are totally inaccessible (unconscious). He used techniques such as free association, dream analysis and transference to unlock the subconscious. Most of our subconscious has been made up through repression, whereby threatening, traumatic or unpleasant experiences are â€Å"forgotten† and â€Å"locked away†. This is a major form of â€Å"ego defence†. Repression is closely related to resistance, interpretation of which is another key technique in psychoanalysis. Freud believed that personality is made up of three components: the id, ego and superego. The id and superego (unconscious) are in constant conflict with the ego (conscious), which tries to resolve this discord. If this conflict is not resolved, we use defence mechanisms to reduce our anxiety. Psychoanalysis attempts to help patients resolve their inner conflicts. The id also contains two instincts, eros (life and sex instinct) and thanatos (dream instinct). Thanatos has weaker energies than eros and is therefore channelled away from ourselves and into aggression towards others. One aspect of psychoanalysis is Freud’s theory of psychosexual development, which shows how early experiences affect adult personality. The most important stage is the phallic stage and during this stage boys experience the â€Å"Oedipus† complex and girls experience the â€Å"Electra complex† (Gross, R. 2001 page 15). These complexes result in children identifying with the same sex parent who enables them to learn sex appropriate behaviour and a moral code of conduct for their future life. However like lots of Freud’s work, it has been criticized for over emphasizing the importance of sexuality and under emphasizes the role and influence of social relationships. The types of research methods that are used to study the psychodynamic approach include case studies (i. . Anna O, Little Hans), experiments, hypnosis, slips of the tongue (paraplexes), projective tests (TAT, Rorschach) and dream analysis. Psychodynamic research methods are mostly unscientific and lack empirical support, in terms of analysing human behaviour. For this approach, we are more likely to see qualitative data collection (case studies) which are subjective and also unfalsifiable. The humanist approach believes this approach is too deterministic, leaving little room for personal agency although a great strength of psychodynamics is that it highlights the importance of the subconscious mind and defence mechanisms. Freud too criticizes other perspectives, especially behaviourism, as it doesn’t take into account the unconscious minds influence on behaviour (McLeod, S. A. 2007). Behavioural psychology is concerned with how outside environmental factors (stimuli) affect observable behaviour (response). It focuses on learned behaviour and how these behaviours are learned and reinforced. The underlying assumption is that psychology should be seen as scientific. Around this time Watson, who was the founder of behaviourism, became increasingly critical of introspection and was also starting to experiment on non – human animals. He believed the psychodynamic perspective was difficult to verify and was very subjective, the polar opposite of behaviourism which can be accurately measured. With his famous manifesto of 1913, Watson redefined psychology and launched the behavioural school of psychology (Gross, R. 2001 page 13). He believed people are born with a â€Å"blank slate† and that peoples (and animals) behaviour are controlled and taught from their specific environment, rather than internally (i. e. Freud, Jung). Freud completely rejects tabula rasa and believed people are born with â€Å"instincts†. Behaviourism is purely a â€Å"nurture approach† and how we are nurtured, determines behaviour. The two main processes whereby people (and animals) learn from their environment are namely classical and operant conditioning. Classical conditioning involves learning by association. The Russian psychologist, Pavlov (1897) accidentally stumbled upon this condition after originally studying digestion in dogs (McLeod, S. A. 2007). He noticed the dogs salivating whenever he came into the room, even when he wasn’t bringing them food between experiments. He believed dogs didn’t learn to salivate when they saw food. This was â€Å"hardwired† in them as an unconditioned reflex. So why were they salivating when they saw him enter the room? He came to the conclusion the dogs learnt over time to â€Å"associate† him with food. From this knowledge he conducted experiments where he successfully conditioned dogs to salivate to the sound of just a bell through the repeated association of the sound of a bell and food. This proved his theory. Operant conditioning involves learning from the consequences of behaviour. B. F.  Skinner investigated this theory with controlled experiments and showed how rats learnt and changed their behaviour from punishment, positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement with his â€Å"Skinner Box† experiments (McLeod, S. A. 2007). This and other human experiments explained some behaviour by a person’s (or animals) motive, therefore proving behaviour occurs for a reason. One other behavioural theory that should be mentioned is social learning theory. Albert Bandura (1977 page 38) states behaviour is learned from the environment through the process of observational learning (bobo doll experiment). He believed we learn indirectly, observing behaviours of others then imitating them. For a person to imitate another, the behaviour must be seen as rewarding in some way (reinforced) otherwise this wouldn’t happen. Memory is also involved in some way, and then the behaviour is carried out. Behaviourism is very scientific, using quantitative data. Its laboratory experiments and research with non-human animals is always supported by empirical data, obtained through careful, controlled observation and measurement. These measurements and data are also very accurate. There are limitations to this perspective, with regard to it being too deterministic and its experiments having low ecological value for some. Humanists also believe you cannot compare animals to humans. Behaviourism began to loosen its grip during the 1950’s and during the 1960’s, cognitive psychology started to take hold. Cognitive psychology is introspective and focuses on mental processes such as memory, thinking, problem solving, language and decision making. It has been greatly influenced by psychologists such as Piaget, Bandura and Tolman (1948). It’s a very scientific perspective, and revolves around the notion that if we want to know what makes people tick and behave in certain manners, then we need to know what processes are actually going on in their minds. Unlike behaviorism, which focuses only on observable behaviors, cognitive psychology is concerned with internal mental states. It explains behavior in terms of how the mind operates, often comparing it to a computer (Gross, R. 2001 page 21). Such internal processes include perception, memory, language and maladaptive thinking. These processes are viewed as mechanistic. Perception is the process of attaining awareness or understanding of sensory information. It comes from the Latin word â€Å"perceptio† which means receiving, collecting and action of taking possession with the mind or senses. â€Å"Memory is the means by which we draw on our past experiences in order to use this information in the present† (Sternberg, 1999). Memory is essential to all our lives. Without a memory of the past, we cannot operate in the present or think about the future. Schemas are memory knowledge packages and can be defined as â€Å"a set of linked mental representations of the world, which we use both to understand and to respond to situations† Piaget, J. (1936). Born in 1896 Piaget was the first psychologist to make a systematic study of cognitive development. Piaget called the schema the basic building block of intelligent behaviour – a way of organising knowledge. All of us use schemas in our everyday life as well as stereotyping, which are â€Å"mental short cuts†. Stereotypes are often communicated through words i. e. hairman. Another area of cognitive behaviour is social cognition which is concerned with how people think about each other and different social groups i. e. class, minorities. It is suggested people have psychological problems due to maladaptive thinking and irrational thoughts. C. B. T. challenges these thoughts and behaviours to treat such disorders i. e. Depression or Anxiety. Research methods for cognitive behaviour are mostly in the form of laboratory experiments. Case studies though are sometimes used in situations where individuals are brain damaged. It’s extremely scientific using mainly quantitive data. Skinner criticizes the cognitive approach, as he believes that only external stimulus response behaviour should be studied, as this can be scientifically measured (McLeod, S. A. 2007). One of its strengths though is that this perspective has many empirical studies to support its theories. It’s easily measured which is why it’s included in the medical model and is currently used widely in the NHS. The cognitive approach though, does not always recognize physical factors in determining behaviour. The biological perspective studies such factors. The biological perspective is a way of looking at psychological topics, by studying the physical basis for animal and human behaviour. It is one of the major perspectives in psychology, and involves such things as studying the immune system, nervous system and genetics. This field of psychology is often referred to as biopsychology or physiological psychology. This perspective has grown significantly over the past few decades, especially with advances in our ability to explore and understand the human brain and nervous system. Eysenck (1980) believes peoples personality behaviour can be explained in terms of the kind of nervous system a person inherits and has also produced evidence ( Eysenck 1967) relating to biological differences between introverts and extroverts, believing behaviour can be governed by physiology and genetics (inheritance), (Gross, R. 2001 page 616). MRI scans and PET scans also allow researchers to look at the brain in different ways and can explain behaviours in neurological terms. This can sometimes explain abnormal behaviour in people. Biological psychologists believe that schizophrenia is affected by levels of dopamine (a neurotransmitter), and a brain scan can show up these levels. Autism can also be treated by psychoactive drugs and low carbohydrate diets too (Gross, R. 2001 page 582). Those findings have also helped psychiatry and helped to relieve symptoms of mental illness through drugs. One limitation of this perspective is that Freudians would say the biological approach only treats the surface symptoms and not the underlying causes of the actual problem. This approach is very scientific, using laboratory and natural experiments for physiological studies. Brain function studies include invasive (Autopsy) and non- invasive (CAT scans) methods. Brain damaged individuals are also investigated through case studies. The biological approach has a strong counter argument against the nurture approach (behavioural) but humanists would argue against this perspective as being too deterministic. Two of the most influential theorists in humanistic psychology are Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow (Hierarchy of Needs Model). Carl Ransom Rogers was born in 1902 in Oak Park Illinois and is the founder of â€Å"person centred† or non-directive therapy. It’s a form of talk psychotherapy and the goal of P. C. T is to develop a sense of self wherein the client can realize, how their attitudes, feelings and behaviour are being negatively affected and make an effort to find their true potential (Rogers, R C 1961 page 18). Clients are aided by the therapist to find their own solutions to their problems through self-awareness, finally leading to self-actualisation. In Rogers’s words â€Å"the organism has one basic tendency and striving – to actualise, maintain and enhance the experiencing organism (Rogers, R C 1961, 487). He believes we can help ourselves through our own free will and personal agency, to self-actualise to become a fully functioning person once again. Humanistic psychologists empower their clients rather than have â€Å"power† or â€Å"authority over them like psychoanalysts or behaviourists do. They look at human behaviour not only through the eyes of the observer, but through the eyes of the person doing the behaving. It’s based on the six core conditions needed for change. As humanists focus on the whole person (holism), they regard scientific measures (i. e. biological) inappropriate for studying behaviour, although their belief in free will is in opposition to the deterministic laws of science. The research uses qualitative data, using methods such as case studies and informal interviews. Qualitative data also gives genuine insight and more holistic information into behaviour. As we can conclude from the discussions on the various perspectives, each one focuses on their own unique conception of why humans behave as they do. Freud’s â€Å"tension reducing person†, Skinners â€Å"environmentally controlled person† and Rogers â€Å"growth motivated person† are all quite different from each other. This diversity of approaches and research methods reflect the complexity of this subject matter. However we’ve also noted some important similarities between different approaches, such as the deterministic nature of Freud’s and Skinners theories and the scientific nature of the behaviourist and biological approaches, which have no consideration for human free will. Each perspective has its own unique strengths and limitations and can even contradict each other’s theories. A scientific approach such as cognitive psychology tends to ignore the subjective (i. e. personal) experiences that people have. The humanistic approach accounts for this but largely at the expense of being non-scientific in its methods and ability to provide evidence. Each perspective though, has something of value to contribute to our understanding of ourselves and human behaviour. Without all these perspectives; our learning and understanding of human behaviour would indeed be more limited and therefore each perspective has its own unique place in psychology.

Twains View on Violence and Superstition Essay Example for Free

Twains View on Violence and Superstition Essay Twain reflects violence and superstition Hucks experiences. These views are coming from pre-Civil War events through the experinces of southern life at the time. Huck views superstition from what he learns Jim. Violence can be seen throughtout Hucks many adventures, before and after he fakes his death. These views can be seen through Hucks reactions. Violence seemsto be the most reaccuring event throughout many of Hucks adventures. His father is an abusive drunk. I think Twain uses Hucks father as a representative of the worst in white society. Paps violence toward Huck shows that before the Civil War, Twain believes whites treated everyone with hate equaly no matter if the are black, white, or family. Huck could have, at any moment left his father, but I guess Twain views violence as somthing that can be tolerated for acceptance or lack there of. Twain also views violence something to sympathize with during the pre-Civil war era. In a number of events Huck disagrees or feels bad for those treated violently. Even if the violence was justified or not. Huck felt bad for the man tied up on the wrecked ship, so he trapped the ones causing the violence and went for the authorities. Huck also feels bad for the Duke and the Dauphin, even though they deserved to be tared and feathered or some other form of violoent punishment. Twains views on violence seems to me to contridict themselves. Going as far as faking ones death to escape violence and yet also sympathyzing with those who are treated with violence and yet they are deserving of it in any way, shape, or form. Superstition seems to be something that before the Civil War, only slaves acted upon superstition. Huck learns about supertions from Jim while they are on their island. Jim informs Huck that things are given to those who are deserving. Twain really doesnt reflect on this good or bad. Only considering that Huck learns many leasons from playing superstitous related tricks on Jim. Jim gets what is owed to him only after his owners death and having gone through, what Tom views as a romantic game, but a life or death situation for Jim revealing to Huck that in fact that things are given back to those who are deserving. These events, superstition and violence have contributed to Twains view of pre-Civil War southern life as seen throughout his novel and the experinces of Huckleberry Finn.

Positive and Negative Affective Outcomes

Positive and Negative Affective Outcomes Work stress is a significant problem in the industry. This article explains stress as demands of the job and a person inability to meet those demands. Stress can be both positive and negative. This research has examined the positive and negative effects of stress. For positive stress term Eustress is used and for negative stress the term distress is used. This is a study of one hundred and forty four employees from three New Zealand organizations about stressful work-related events, its effect on performance and moral of the employees. Unlike other studies this research has also focused on positive outcomes of the stress if stress is effectively coped. Cognitive appraisal scale(CAS) was used for primary appraisal. The job related effective wellbeing scale ( jaws ) was used to measure the relation of the employees with their job. Factors which were identified as coping strategies for stress were systematic problem solving, social support, positive reappraisal, self-controlling, confro nted coping, escape-avoidance, accepting responsibility, and distancing. With respect to our research from this article we can identify that stress can be both positive eustress and negative distress. From this research we can identify some variables like Organizational and situational variables such as managerial style and support, work control, organizational culture and employment stability are likely to impact on employees stress. Individual difference variables such as anxiety personality type and optimism/pessimism also affect how an employee takes stress. Article: Positive and Negative Affective Outcomes of Occupational Stress Much research over the last decade has emphasised the negative consequences of excessive work-related demands on an individuals physical and psychological health and wellbeing. While there is as yet no single agreed-upon definition of stress, the present research defines it as a relationship between the person and the environment that is appraised by the person as taxing and endangering his or her well-being (Lazarus Folkman, 1984, p19). Occupational stress arises from demands experienced in the working environment that affect how one functions at work or outside work. Past research has predominantly focused on the negative aspects of stress. This is not surprising given the documented impacts of stress on health, wellbeing and work-related performance. However the positive psychology movement proposes that, instead of focusing on human pathology, research attention should also be directed towards positive health, growth and wellbeing (Seligman Csikszentmihalyi, 2000). It has been argued that stress is a part of life and cannot be avoided, and that stress can result in beneficial outcomes as well as negative ones (Selye, 1973, 1974). If negotiated appropriately, stress can be energizing, stimulating and growth producing for the individual as abilities are extended and new accomplishments made (Quick, Nelson, Quick, 1990). There is increasing interest in the potential for positive outcomes from the stress process including stress-related growth and positive personal changes (Folkman Moskowitz, 2004; Somerfield McCrae, 2000). If a stressful situa tion is resolved successfully then positive, rather than negative, emotions may predominate but there is a need for further to identify the stress-related processes associated with positive and negative emotions (Folkman Moskowitz, 2004). Good health encompasses more than just avoiding disease: it also involves the attainment of positive wellness, emotional, intellectual, spiritual, occupational, social and physical (Nelson Simmons, 2003, p 98). Acknowledging the positive response to the stress process may impact on how stress in the workplace is managed. Distress and Eustress The term eustress was coined by Selye to denote the positive aspects of stress in contrast to distress representing the negative aspects (Selye, 1974). Other influential writers have also suggested that stress is not inherently maladaptive (Hart, 2003; Hart Cotton, 2002; Karasek, 1979; Lazarus, 1999; Lazarus Folkman, 1984; Tedeschi Calhoun, 2004). In the context of the workplace, stressful events can lead to perceptions of positive benefit (Campbell-Quick, Cooper, Nelson, Quick, Gavin, 2003; Nelson Simmons, 2003). However although many researchers have investigated distress, eustress has been neglected until recently. Eustress is defined as a positive psychological response to a stressor as indicated by the presence of positive psychological states. Distress (or stress in keeping with common terminology) is a negative psychological response to a stressor, as indicated by the presence of negative psychological states (Simmons Nelson, 2001). Simmons and Nelson (2001) found eustress and distress to be distinguishable by affective state. Hope, meaningfulness and positive affect were significant indicators of eustress (Nelson Simmons, 2003). Meaningfulness is the extent to which work appears to make sense emotionally and to be worth investing effort in. Hope is the belief that one has both the will and the way to succeed. State positive affect reflects a condition of pleasurable engagement, energy and enthusiasm. Eustress was also associated with task engagement or absorption (Campbell-Quick et al., 2003; Rose, 1987). Task engagement denotes being enthusiastically involved in and pleasurably occupied by the demands of the work at hand (Nelson Simmons, 2003, p 103). This is similar to the concept of flow (Campbell-Quick et al., 2003) in which people are so actively involved in the task that nothing else seems to matter (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990). Distress on the other hand is indicated by negative work attitudes and psycholo gical states such as negative affect, anger, job alienation and frustration (Simmons, Nelson, Neal, 2001). Eustress is similar to the concept of morale defined as the energy, enthusiasm, team spirit and pride that employees experience as a result of their work (Hart Cotton, 2002, p. 102). Distress and eustress/ morale are not mutually exclusive: they can occur simultaneously in response to the same demand and are likely to result from different processes (Hart, 2003; Hart Cotton, 2002). The stress process There is at least some consensus that stress should be seen as a process or interaction between demands and the individuals ability to deal with them (Sulsky Smith, 2005). One conceptualization of this process is the cognitive-transactional model (Lazarus, 1966). The focus of this model is on individual and situational factors that interact with the appraisal of demands to produce outcomes (McGowan, 2004; Sulsky Smith, 2005). Antecedents to Eustress The transactional model considers stress to be a process involving appraisals of threat or challenge (primary appraisal), coping (secondary appraisal) and reappraisal. Primary appraisal involves a decision as to whether a demand (potential stressor) is both relevant and stressful in that it is seen to represent a potential threat to the individuals goals, beliefs or expectations (Lazarus, 1966; Lazarus, 1999). Demands can also be appraised as irrelevant or relevant but benign. A demand appraised as irrelevant or as benign (offering the chance to preserve or enhance wellbeing) does not initiate the stress process as there is no potential threat to overcome (Lazarus, 1999). If a demand is appraised as relevant and stressful then further appraisal takes place. Stressful appraisals include an appraisal of threat or loss, where the individual perceives the demand as exceeding the resources available to cope with it; but also of challenge, when resources are high relative to the demand and there is potential for mastery and personal growth (Lazarus Folkman, 1984). Threat and challenge appraisals represent distinct constructs and are associated with diff erent patterns of physiological arousal (Quigley, Barrett, Weinstein, 2002; Tomaka, 1993; Tomaka, Blascovich, Kibler, Ernst, 1997); subjective experience of strain and affect (Maier, Waldstein, Synowski, 2003), coping expectancies and performance (Boswell, OlsonBuchanan, LePine, 2004; Skinner Brewer, 2002). Threat and challenge appraisals represent distinct constructs and can occur simultaneously (Lazarus Folkman, 1984). Whether a challenge or threat was initially appraised, in order to reduce the demand some form of coping action is taken (Lazarus Folkman, 1984). Coping responses are influenced by initial appraisals. Challenge appraisals have been associated with more use of problem-focused coping (Bjorck Cohen, 1993; McCrae, 1984) while threat appraisals were linked to more emotion-focused coping (McCrae, 1984). While some coping research has linked emotion focussed coping with an increase in distress, the effectiveness of any particular coping strategy depends on its appropriateness (Folkman Moskowitz, 2004; Lazarus Folkman, 1984). Hypothesis 1: Challenge appraisals will be positively associated with task-focused coping. Hypothesis 2: Threat appraisals will be positively associated with emotion-focused coping. Research has predominantly focussed on negative outcomes and has only recently acknowledged that positive emotion can arise in stressful situations as a result of effective coping. Coping responses such as relaxation, direct action/task focussed coping and positive reappraisal can lead to the experience of increased positive affect while inappropriate or maladaptive coping responses may lead to negative affective reactions (Folkman Moskowitz, 2004). Eustress is not simply the result of a positive experience with positive events. It arises from effective negotiation of the stress process rather than a process of passive savouring (Simmons, Nelson, Quick, 2003). Hypothesis 3: Eustress will be positively associated with task-focused coping. Hypothesis 4: Distress will be positively associated with emotion-focused coping. Outcomes of Eustress Eustress has been shown to have a positive impact on subjective as well as objective performance (Skinner Brewer, 2002; Tomaka, 1993), possibly as a result of the increased motivation provided by task engagement. Hypothesis 5: Eustress will be positively associated with satisfaction with the outcomes of the stress process. Hypothesis 6: Distress will be negatively associated with satisfaction with the outcomes of the stress process. Over the long term eustress may result in positive changes in wellbeing, growth, flexibility, adaptability and performance (Quick et al., 1990), while distress may give rise to the stress outcomes commonly discussed in everyday language, for example the negative effects on physical and psychological wellbeing. Simmons and Nelson (2001) found that eustress was related to positive perceptions of health among nurses. Edwards and Cooper (1988), in a review of research on the effects of positive psychological states on health, found that positive psychological states produced an improvement in health both directly through physiological processes and indirectly by facilitating coping with stress (Edwards Cooper, 1988). Although long-term outcomes are beyond the scope of the present study, an increase in motivation, work performance and positive work-related affective states may also increase long-term job satisfaction. Method Three New Zealand organizations participated in the study. These were a public sector organization where fulltime administrative, clerical and management roles predominated; a retail business with part-time and full-time roles and a University department including fulltime teaching, research and administrative roles. Response rates for the three organizations were 52% (85 responses), 44% (26 responses) and 34% (33 responses) respectively. Participants were 74 males (51%) and 67 females (47%). Ages ranged from 18 (11%) less than 21 years, 50 (35%) between 21 and 36 years, 54 (38%) between 37 and 55 years, and 21 (25%) above 55 years in age. Three respondents did not indicate age or gender. The mean time respondents had spent within their current organization was six and a half years (SD = 7.32). There were significant differences between the three organizations only on tenure (F(2,132)= 15.62, p Measures Before answering the questions on appraisals and coping, participants were asked to identify one specific stressful event they had recently experienced at work and to answer the questions in relation to that event. Primary appraisals were assessed by the eight-item Cognitive Appraisal Scale (CAS; Skinner Brewer, 2002). Four questions each related to threat and challenge appraisals. Question two was reworded to relate to a work setting (grade changed to outcome) and all questions were given in the past tense to indicate an event that had already been encountered. Although the CAS assesses both frequency and intensity for each item, no difference in responses were found between frequency and intensity measures (Skinner Brewer, 2002) and so were replaced by a six-point scale where 1 = strongly disagree and 6 = strongly agree. Questionnaire (WCQ) assessed coping strategies used by participants to manage their stressor event (Folkman Lazarus, 1988). The measure assesses actual coping (as opposed to trait coping) by focussing on how the recently experienced event was negotiated. The 66 items of this scale assess eight forms of coping: planful problem solving, positive reappraisal, seeking social support, confrontive coping, escape-avoidance, distancing, self-controlling and accepting responsibility. Coping data were recoded into task-focused and emotion-focused coping as reported below. The Job Related Affective Wellbeing Scale (JAWS) was used to assess participants emotional reactions to their work (van Katwyk, Fox, Spector, Kelloway, 2000). Participants were asked to rate on a scale of 1 to 5 the degree to which they had experienced 30 different emotions over the past 30 days. As the scale focused on recent emotional experience, it tapped state affect and is a valid representative of immediate stress process responses. The emotional responses covered two dimensions: positive/negative affect and arousal. This provided four quadrants: negative affect/low arousal (e.g. My job made me feel bored), negative affect/high arousal (e.g. My job made me feel anxious), positive affect/low arousal (e.g. my job made me feel calm), and positive affect/high arousal (e.g. my job made me feel enthusiastic). Skinner and Brewer (2002) found an association between threat appraisal and negative active affect (e.g. anxiety) but not negative deactivated affect (e.g. boredom) and between challenge appraisals and positive-active affect (e.g. excitement) but not positive deactivated affect (e.g. calm). Emotions should be considered in terms of both valence and level of activation (Skinner Brewer, 2002). High-activation affective responses are consistent with the meaning of threat and challenge, or the need to act to avoid failure and its negative consequences on one hand or to achieve success and its benefits on the other. For the present research eustress was conceptualised as the positive affect/ high arousal quadrant and distress was conceptualised as the negative affect/ high arousal quadrant of the JAWS. The outcome measure for this study was a single item that asked respondents to rate their level of agreement with the statement I felt positive about the outcomes of the situation. Responses were coded so that 1 = strongly disagree and 6 = strongly agree. The limitations of this measure were recognised and addressed as far as possible during the data analysis. Performance and other outcome data were not available for this study. To correct for the unreliability of the single outcome indicator the error term was fixed at a specific value (Bollen, 1989). The fixed value was determined by multiplying the proportion of error variance (1 [rho]) of the indicator by, the variance of the indicator, where [rho] =.80. Statistical Analyses A two stage approach was adopted for the data analysis using confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) and structural equation modelling (SEM; see Anderson Gerbing, 1988; Schumacker Lomax, 1996). Stage one involved the building of measurement models for each of the measures used in this study. The rationale for building measurement models is that it allows for the best indicators of a construct to be identified and thus provides evidence for validity of the measure. Given the current sample size it was decided that for the final structural model at least four items for each construct would be used. In essence, this not only increased the subject-variable ratio but also served to identify the most unidimensional set of items to specify a construct. Unidimensionality is an important aspect when exploring structural relationship between various constructs as clear unambiguous measures allow for better predictive validity (Anderson Gerbing, 1988; Schumacker Lomax, 1996). For the CAS a two factor model, challenge and threat, was tested with the final model being specified with the strongest loadings in each subscale. For the JAWS only two factors were tested, high-pleasure high-arousal, and low-pleasure high-arousal, again using the best indicators for these hypothesized constructs. For the WCQ a second order measurement model was tested with eight factors: planful problem solving (PPS), positive reappraisal (PR), seeking social support (SS) self-controlling (SC), confrontive coping (C), distancing (D), accepting responsibility (AR) and escape avoidance (EA). The four best fitting items were used to specify each factor (Anderson Gerbing, 1988). For the full structural model two higher-order factors (task-focused and emotion-focused coping) were specified using subscale scores as observed indicators. Task-focused coping strategies were planful problem solving, positive reappraisal, seeking social support and self-controlling. Emotion-focused coping strategies were confrontive coping, distancing, accepting responsibility and escape avoidance. Having identified the measurement models for each factor a structural model was specified using the hypotheses stated above (see Figure 1). [FIGURE 1 OMITTED] Model Fit For all CFA and SEMs both absolute and incremental goodness-of-fit indexes were used. Absolute fit was assessed using the chi-square statistic. Incremental goodness-of-fit measures were the comparative fit index (CFI; Bentler, 1992), Tucker-Lewis index (TLI) and the root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA; Steiger Lind, 1980). The CFI and TLI indexes have coefficient values ranging from zero to 1.00, with values of .90 and higher being traditionally viewed as representing good fit (Bender, 1992). Fit values for the RMSEA suggest adequate fit where values fall between .08 and .10 and acceptable fit where RMSEAs are below .08 (Byrne, 2001; MacCallum, Browne, Sugawara, 1996); Hu and Bentler (1999) suggest that a RMSEA less than or equal to .06 indicates good model fit (Hu Bentler, 1999). Results The results for the measurement models are presented in Table 1. For the CAS the model fit was good and suggested a reasonable approximation to the data. The reliabilities were .78 and .72 for the challenge and the threat scales respectively. For the WCQ model fit was again reasonable. For each of the lower order factors the reliability estimates were: planful problem solving =.66, social support = .66, positive reappraisal = .79 self-controlling = .63, confrontive coping = .69; escape-avoidance = .77, accepting responsibility = .60, and distancing = .56. For the higher order factors, task-focused and emotion-focused coping, the reliability estimates were .74 and .65 respectively. Results for the JAWS again suggested that the specified two factors were reasonably approximated with reliability estimates of .90 for the positive affect high-arousal (eustress) and .81 for negative affect high-arousal (distress). Correlations, means and standard deviations are presented in Table 2. As expected, challenge appraisal was associated positively with task-focused coping, with eustress and with subjective performance. Although threat appraisal was positively associated with emotion-focused coping it was not associated with distress or subjective performance. Task-focused coping was associated with emotion-focused coping, suggesting that respondents who used more task-focused strategies also used more emotion-focused strategies. Emotion-focused coping was positively associated with distress and negatively associated with subjective performance. Eustress and distress were, respectively, positively and negatively associated with subjective performance. All results for the final structural model were standardized. For the final model the goodness-of-fit was reasonable ([chi square] = 734.1; df = 294: TLI =.92; CFI = .93; RMSEA = .10). All specified paths in the model were statistically significant and in the hypothesized direction (see Figure 1). Hypotheses 1 and 2, that challenge appraisals would be associated with task-focused coping and threat appraisals would be associated with emotion-focused coping, were supported. Hypotheses 3 and 4 that linked eustress and distress to task and emotion-focused coping respectively were also supported. With regard to subjective perceptions of performance in the stress situation, hypotheses 5 and 6 were supported. Eustress was positively associated and distress was negatively associated with subjective performance. Overall the results support the hypothesised model. Discussion The aim of this study was to investigate the antecedents and outcomes of the stress process and to include positive (eustress) and negative (distress) affective outcomes. The research showed support for the hypothesised structural model. The relationships between primary appraisal and coping support one of the key propositions of the cognitive-appraisal model of stress: the choice of coping strategy is affected by appraisals as to whether a demand represents a threat or a challenge. Previous research has found threat appraisals to be associated with greater use of emotion-focused coping (Lowe Bennett, 2003) and this was supported by the present study. Emotion-focused coping was in turn associated with distress and dissatisfaction with outcomes. Challenge appraisals were not related to emotion-focused coping but were related to greater use of task-focused coping strategies. The implications of these findings for stress management in organisations are considered below. As predicted, challenge appraisals were associated with eustress and perceptions that the stress processes had been effectively managed. The choice of coping strategies was also an important influence on affective outcomes: task-focused strategies which focused on addressing the demand were associated with eustress while emotion-focused strategies which failed to address the demand were associated with distress. This suggests that, as proposed by Lazarus and Folkman, when people face a demand it is not the demand in itself but the ways in which the demand is managed that impact upon outcomes. Implications for research The outcome measure in this study was limited to self-reported satisfaction with the outcome of the stress process. Further investigation should examine a broader range of outcomes including objective measures of performance and long term variables including physical and psychological health, both of which have been shown to be affected by work-related stressors. Further research is also needed to address several other issues including the precursors to threat and challenge appraisals and mediators of the stress process. A range of factors may affect primary and secondary appraisal processes. Individual difference variables such as anxiety (Skinner Brewer, 2002), personality (Penley Tomaka, 2002) and optimism/pessimism (Riolli Savicki, 2003) have been linked to differences in appraisals, coping and outcomes. Organisational and situational variables such as managerial style and support, work control, organizational culture and employment stability are also likely to impact upon the stress process. Further research into these factors is important to help build effective strategies for managing workplace demands. Implications for practice Work-related stress is a major problem with serious implications for health and wellbeing but managing it is far from straightforward. This may account for the documented ineffectiveness of stress management interventions(Beehr ODriscoll, 2002; Sulsky Smith, 2005). In managing the stressors at work, it is important to identify, assess and control stressors, but also to avoid removing the rewarding aspects of the job. Distress is not the inevitable consequence of occupational stressors: when demands are managed appropriately growth and positive change can occur as challenges are faced and overcome. Although distress has become a major concern, it is often not feasible to remove all stressors from work and this may not in fact be desirable. Recognition of the potential for positive outcomes of the stress process raises the possibility of identifying ways to increase the task-focused management of work-related demands to increase enjoyment, satisfaction and performance. The challenge lies with providing the tools required to increase the effective management of workplace demands. Any suggestion that cognitive-appraisal models of stress imply that stress is an individual problem, best addressed by teaching positive appraisal and coping, is flawed. Primary appraisal includes a subjective assessment of the balance between demands and resources. Increasing resources or reducing demands is more appropriate and more consistent with legal requirements than attempting to retrain individuals to appraise demands positively, and training in effective coping has been shown to have only limited impact(Folkman Lazarus, 1988). Coping strategies are rarely used singly, and no one strategy or combination of strategies is always effective. The ability to use a repertoire of coping strategies flexibly is important. One component of stress management could be to encourage the use of task-focused and flexible coping behaviour and to promote learning that can be generalised to new situations, but stress management begins with consideration of organisational issues. Leadership, pe er support, organisational culture and policies, work design and reporting arrangements are important as are job analysis, staff selection and training to enhance role clarity and the fit between the person and the work environment. Effective systems for motivation and performance management are essential.

Teh Great Gadsby Essay -- essays research papers

The Great Gatsby is a novel that is about the rich people of the roaring twenties and in particularly about a man named Gatsby in search of the American dream. The story starts out with the narrator Nick Carraway moving from the west (Chicago) to a New York suburb called West Egg. His is trying to become a successful bond salesman. Just across the bay is where his cousin Daisy Buchanan and her husband Tom Buchanan live. But right next door is where the main character Jay Gatsby lives in a huge house, where every weekend he holds an enormous party. In the beginning Nick goes to the Buchanan mansion. There he meats Jordan Baker(a pro golfer) and he also learns that Tom is having an affair. Next Nick and Tom go to The garage where Tom tells Myrtle to be on the next train. They picked her up at the station in New York and as they are driving to the apartment Tom has rented for the affair Myrtle buys a dog. The go to the apartment and have a little party and Tom and Myrtle get in a fight and Tom breaks her nose. Next Nick is invited to Gatsby’s party, there he hears many rumors about Gatsby. Then at almost the end of the party Nick finally meets Gatsby and he learns a little about him, That he’s an Oxford man and that he inherited his fortune from his family. At the end of their conversation they set up a lunch date for the following day. At the lunch date Gatsby introduces Nick to another important character named Meyer Wolfsheim, whom is the man that rigged the 1919 World Serie... Teh Great Gadsby Essay -- essays research papers The Great Gatsby is a novel that is about the rich people of the roaring twenties and in particularly about a man named Gatsby in search of the American dream. The story starts out with the narrator Nick Carraway moving from the west (Chicago) to a New York suburb called West Egg. His is trying to become a successful bond salesman. Just across the bay is where his cousin Daisy Buchanan and her husband Tom Buchanan live. But right next door is where the main character Jay Gatsby lives in a huge house, where every weekend he holds an enormous party. In the beginning Nick goes to the Buchanan mansion. There he meats Jordan Baker(a pro golfer) and he also learns that Tom is having an affair. Next Nick and Tom go to The garage where Tom tells Myrtle to be on the next train. They picked her up at the station in New York and as they are driving to the apartment Tom has rented for the affair Myrtle buys a dog. The go to the apartment and have a little party and Tom and Myrtle get in a fight and Tom breaks her nose. Next Nick is invited to Gatsby’s party, there he hears many rumors about Gatsby. Then at almost the end of the party Nick finally meets Gatsby and he learns a little about him, That he’s an Oxford man and that he inherited his fortune from his family. At the end of their conversation they set up a lunch date for the following day. At the lunch date Gatsby introduces Nick to another important character named Meyer Wolfsheim, whom is the man that rigged the 1919 World Serie...

Research and Critical Thinking :: Critical Thinking Essays

Research & Critical Thinking Research and critical thinking is such a crucial entity in the world of every single science and our every day lives. While a biologist is testing the effects of carbon monoxide on the environment, a little girl is pointing in the sky counting how many colors there are in a rainbow. Both of these scenarios involve research and critical thinking but are extremely different. There are no guidelines for the little girl but there are many that the biologist has to follow. The same goes for psychological research. Psychological research is almost exactly the same as scientific research. First you must make a hypothesis, experiment, collect data, and based off of the data you make conclusions as to whether or not your hypothesis was confirmed. The difference between psychological research and some other sciences is in what’s considered data and how that data is gathered and processed. Because psychology deals greatly with the mind and sometimes focuses on things that are not measurable, research has been restricted to things that are observable and therefore can be traced. To do research that successfully gives birth to credible data there are certain elements that must be followed as closely as possible. First your hypothesis must be researched and generalized. Secondly, before starting an experiment one must have a dependent variable, a control variable, and an independent variable. Third the data must be collected and translated properly. In the case of the researcher who studied college students he has completely abused all the elements of research. He has done almost everything wrong in his research, therefore making his research highly un-credible and almost bogus. Starting with the first step in the scientific method, which is forming a hypothesis, I have reason to believe that after reading this researchers hypothesis he hasn’t a clue how to properly conduct it. Comparing the four year college students to the two year college students is not the problem; it is the structure of the hypothesis. Instead of saying students at a four year colleges are more intelligent than students at two year colleges, the hypothesis should be if students who attend four year colleges and students who attend two year colleges take the same IQ test, than the students who attend the four year college will score higher than the students who attend the two year college. It is much more descriptive without being to constricting.

Portrayal of Asian Americans in the Media Essay -- Stereotyping Asian

Abstract My research focused on the coverage of Asian Americans in contemporary mass media. The following types of media were researched:  ·Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Music  ·Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Television  ·Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Films  ·Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Magazines I gave several examples where Asian Americans were used to play very simple characters. These roles were defined by stereotypes that exist in America. I also researched instances on counter actions taken by Asian Americans to protest against these negative images. My research also has examples of Asians that have succeeded in breaking through the racial barriers in the media. The results show that even though racial stereotyping still exists in various forms of mass media, there are signs that show noticeable improvement on allowing a more balanced image of Asian Americans. Statement of the Problem   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  There are close to 12 million Asian Americans living in the United States (U.S. Asian, 2000). Asian Americans are considered one of the fastest growing minorities (Pimentel, 2001). Between 1990 and 1999, the Asian population rose 43% (Census, 2000). However, Asian Americans are still portrayed in a simplistic manner by the American media, which in turn, promotes stereotyping. I have researched various types of mass media in the United States, such as: music, films, television and magazines. I will focus on several examples where Asian Americans are portrayed in a negative way. Furthermore, I will give examples of musicians, and independent films that prove Asian Americans have potential on what they can contribute to in the American media. Finally, I will recommend different ways to rid the stereotype put on Asian Americans by actions that can be taken, not only pertaining to Asians, but to other ethnicities that face stereotypes on their culture. Background History   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Music in every country has a history going back hundreds of years. It is an excellent type of entertainment that any person can enjoy. America being such a diverse country, any person regardless of race or gender needs to be given a fair shot in an opportunity to showcase his or her talent. However, there is a lack of Asians Americans represented in America. Asian Americans must go above and beyond on what is expected in the industry, compared to white and black Americans who seem to have it much easier. â€Å"Always, it is the Asian who assimilates, who must explain his or her prese... ...ty in televised international athletic events.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  (1995). Retrieved December 9, 2004 from   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  http://www.aafla.org/9arr/ResearchReports/ResearchReport4.htm Restrictive portrayals of asians in the media and how to balance them.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  (2004). Retrieved December 9, 2004 from   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  http://www.manaa.org/articles/stereo.html Thoughts on William Hung’s Inspiration. (2004, April 28).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Retrieved December 9, 2004 from   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  http://modelminority.com/modules.php?name=News&file=article&sid=760 U.S. Asian Population. (2000). Retrieved December 15, 2004 from   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  http://print.infoplease.com/ipa/A0778584.html Wartofsky, A. (2004, December 1). Asian-American rapper isn’t downplaying heritage.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The Wichita Eagle. Retrieved December 15, 2004, from   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  http://www.kansas.com/mld/kansas/entertainment/10306249.htm Wu, F. H. (2002). Yellow: race in america beyond black and white. New York: Basic   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Books. Xu, R. (2004 April, 19). Details magazine sparks protest. The Harvard Crimson.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Retrieved December 16, 2004, from   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  http://www.thecrimson.com/article.aspx?ref=358868 Zia, H. (2000). Asian american dreams. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux.

The benefits of learning english

Many people see the ability to communicate and talk with others as one of the major benefits of learning English. Even outside of a professional environment, people often Ilke to be able to talk to individuals from around the world. Many people find great social and cultural benefits in having pen pals from other countries, and the Internet makes such communication fast and easy. Knowing English can broaden the types of people you can speak to, whether Its via email or on an online discussion forum.A tremendous number of websites are available primarily In English, and anyone who oes not understand the language may have difficulty using them. For anyone Interested In traveling to countries In which English Is the primary or common language, It Is often essential to understand and speak It. Throughout the LJK, US, and Canada, traveling and shopping are often made easier by speaking the language since many individuals may not speak any other language. ne of the most important benefits of learning English is the ability to explore these regions and more easily communicate with locals to learn about places and events that might otherwise remain unknown. Many people in European countries learn English in school, so nowing it can also be of benefit when traveling in locations even where it's not the native tongue. Learning a language can also be a great way to meet people, even if you never plan on leaving home.A class at a local community center or college can introduce you to a wide variety of people who are also interested in English, and give you the opportunity to interact with them in a controlled setting. Language courses often encourage students to carry on conversations with each other in the language being learned, and this can be a great way to break the ice with new people. Immigrants to English-speaking countries who do not speak the language are often at a serious disadvantage economically.It's much more difficult to get and hold a job, find a place to live, and even do everyday tasks like grocery shopping if you don't understand the language. Learning English not only benefits immigrants themselves, it also helps families by allowing parents to be involved more fully in their children's lives and education. In addition, these children dont have to translate for their parents, allowing them to be kids instead of interpreters. A huge amount of popular ntertainment comes out of Hollywood, and nearly all of It Is produced In English.American movies and TV programs are distributed all over the world, and are often subtitled for people who don't speak the language. Knowing English can allow you to better understand the subtleties of dialog that subtitles frequently miss. It can be a challenge to translate concepts and terms that don't match one-for-one between languages, and nuances of meaning can be lost. Language is an inherently cultural construct. How people speak, the words they cnoose, ana tne toplcs unaer Olscusslon are deeply t lea Into tne culture 0T a place.By learning English or any other language, you are putting yourself into the mindset of a native speaker and are introduced to many of the concepts that he finds important. Gaining a better understanding of other cultures can help you to enrich your own understanding of the world and how others see it. Many of the most prominent and well known publications throughout the world are written and printed in English. Scholars interested in doing research at an academic level, or working on new scientific developments, should consider the benefits of learning English to read these periodicals and publish their own work.Publication in peer-reviewed Journals is often required for someone who wishes to remain in academia, and the ability to read and write in English may be necessary to maintain such a position. Even learning about current events often requires an understanding of the language, since so many global publications and news websites use it. Because English is a first language for many countries, many other nations teach it as a requirement in schools. It is estimated that over a billion people in the world speak English on at least a basic level.For many people, the benefits of learning English involve the new pportunities that become available to someone who understands it. Anyone interested in attending a university in the US, for example, needs to speak it or be able to pass a test proving that he or she is fluent. People who do decide to learn English may need to consider what type of English is best for them to know. The two most common forms are British English and American English, and they can be quite different in some respects.The fundamental underlying language is the same, and people who learn one are likely to still be easily understandable by someone who peaks the other, but there will be instances in which words are phrases don't mean the same thing. Much of the decision about which type of English to learn wil l depend on where a student is learning it and what his or her ultimate goals are. To understand the language generally, any type of class will be of help. Many people dont have a wide variety of options to choose from, and a local college may only teach British English, for example.Someone who lives in Europe is more likely to be taught this form simply because he or she is closer geographically to the United Kingdom. Individuals who are learning English for a Job, however, might want to seek out a class that is specifically tailored to business language or to the form spoken in the country they will be doing business with. A person who will be regularly working with an American company, for example, may better understand the nuances of her coworkers if she is familiar with the terminology and idioms of that country.

Education and the Role of Philosophy

gentility and, the consumption of school of thought In The Journey done Ameri dope Education Curriculum as a field of resume has been characterized as elusive, fragmentary and confusing (Ornstein and Hunkins, 2009, p. 1). According to Wikipedia, instructional activity is any act or pose that has a formative effect on the approximation, character, or physical expertness of an privateist and is the process by which society deliberately transmits its accumulated knowledge, skills and jimmy from one genesis to an some other.This report pull up stakes journey by dint of the report of rearing, its philosophies and the philosophers that easeed shape and design it. earlier American schools were defined by religion. The groundwork of teachingal activity was based on ghostly guinea pig. The schools meaning in 1620 was to ground a republic of God-fearing citizens. Women taught children to read the record and to spare the scriptures mend the men and quondam(a) b oys were out in the fields working.With the women as nurturers precept themselves to read and write and and so assuming that responsibility to nurture their childrens moral through the teachings of the scriptures led to the organisation of women as the backbone of American facts of life sentence which appears to still be the case of precede judgment of convictions (History of American Education Primer, p. 27). In the Massachusetts Bay Colony, Protestant ideologic managers desire to compose a moral and God-fearing society and their goals were 1. Honor, fear, and accompany God, 2. Honor, fear, and succeed the father in the home and 3. Honor, fear, and obtain after the government.This ism of the Protestants was c anyed Calvinism which is the stamp that gentlemans gentlemans atomic number 18 born in sin and crucial(prenominal) purge this sin as children mount into adults (p. 10). The Massachusetts Law of 1642 which called for all parents to surface someone to teach their children how to read the bible, write out scriptures, follow Protestant theology, and obey the justnesss of the land along with The Old Deluder daystar Law of 1647 which called for all towns of 50 households or much to appoint a instructor to teach reading and writing and all towns of 100 or much households to bod a school and hire a schoolmaster were the first major laws of instruction (P. 0). As the colonies expanded, different forms of schooling doctrine surfaceed but the Common Schools (schools that sought to bring together white children in a common school to carry on the goals of the dominant white culture) were still dominated by Protestant values of a moral, God-fearing society (p. 31). Over time the teaching of children began to include, along with reading, writing and ciphering, kindly skills such as knowledge, etiquette, and debate. Schools began to include topics to elevate children for employment and if ones family could allow it, college (p. 16).As time passed, facts of life grew to include some different instructions and philosophies to where we are today. With the senseless teachings came many more philosophies. These different philosophies sterilise with teaching style, instruction, and school platform that exit be used to include Axiology, Behaviorism, Epistemology, existential philosophy, Ontology, Perennialism, Eclectic, ingenuousness and Reconstructionism. According to Pratt and Collins (2001), effective teaching may be classified as transmission, apprenticeship, developmental, nurturing, and social reform. To start, William Kritsonis (2005, p. 1) defines philosophy as the mankind beings attempt to deliberate most speculatively, reflectively, and systematically about the initiation and the relationship to that universe. He writes that philosophy has no proof and is therefore without theorems and has not questions that can be answered with yes or no. The goal of educational philosophy is to help develop th e pedagogs speak outing mental ability (p. 91). The deuce-ace branches of philosophy are Metaphysics (Ontology) which mess with last realism, Epistemology which deals with the nature of knowledge and Axiology which is the study of values.The major schools of philosophy are mentationlism which are certain universal compulsive concepts, realness where work is governed by assorted laws, known or unknown, reality which is principally an American philosophy of scientific abbreviation or learn through go through, and existential philosophy which believes that students should control much of what goes on (p. 92). Philosophy has many definitions and is hard to define. The word itself comes from the classic meaning love of wisdom and is the effect system that a person develops concerning existence, reality in the world, lawfulness, ethics, honesty, thought processes, aesthetics, and logic (Kritsonis, p. 8). In regards to education, philosophy is a way of examining melodic themes, proposals, and recommendations for breeding and how best to use them in the educational setting and it is therefore, the application of ideas or idea systems to educational problems (p. 97). Educators study philosophy to help them attain a better soul of the best way to success. Educators use philosophy for the roles in which philosophy stands for which includes to suggest ersatz methods of thinking, to develop sensitivity to the logic and quarrel we use in gathering solutions to problems (p. 97).Philosophy of education is the philosophical study of the use of goods and services, nature, process and ideals of education (Siegel, 2003). As time has progressed so has the disposition of philosophy and its importance on education. The history of philosophy and education would not be complete without its fore fathers so to turn to and the four primary philosophies of noble- judgingedness, pragmatism, Pragmatism and existentialism. idealism was the main philosophy of the thinkers of western civilizations during the exsert half of the 19th century and its believers believed that international reality must be tacit through the medium of the human melodic theme (Kritsonis, p. 03). They believed that when humans came into contact with whatever existed, the human mind functions to grasp the nature of reality and what is real.The three key words of idealism are growth, imitation, and maturity and by imitating a model of behavior, one matures and grows toward an ideal that view ass the apotheosis of virtues (p. 103). It applies to any theory that views the world as being made up of mind, spirit, or reason. They believe that to learn is to distinguish among values because some values are a matter of personal preference while others are absolute regardless of time, bit, and situation (p. 03). Plato is a major reader of noble-mindedness and is considered to be the first and foremost Idealist. He believed that proper education comes before law and there would be no penury to dictate laws to humans of good breeding, for they will find out for themselves what regulations would be compulsory (p. 104). He believed that good breeding accredited through a sound educational system that produces reasonable humans. The impact that Idealism has on education is that its educational philosophy focus on who should be responsible for education, who should be taught, and what should be the curriculum (p. 109).To the Idealist, education is to assist in the development of the mind and self of the pupil and help in attaining the good life of the spirit. The curriculum must be based on the idea of the spiritual nature of humans and must draw on both sources of loyalty and right opinion for its idea matter. Its immemorial purpose is to teach student to think and to teach skills that develop conceptual ability (p. 109). The philosophy of Realism involves the act of truth being determined scientifically. It is based on absolute truth. It p roclaims that objects of perception are objects and contain real existence outside the mind (Kritsonis, p. 12). Aristotle was a major contributor of Realism and he believed that a proper study of matter could lead to better and more distinct ideas. He felt that education was designed to preserve the stability of the state, to create good citizenship, and to prevent revolutions (p. 115). The impact Realism had on education was to present strong to students so they could become acquainted with the subject matter as a pre-established obviate of material and the idea that successful learning consists of understanding that material (p. 118). The philosophy of Pragmatism is the result of action.Pragmatists believe that ideas become true in order to get into copacetic relations with other parts of baffle (kritsonis, p. 121). John Dewey was a major contributor of pragmatism. He was one of the most influential of all American philosophers and educators and was actively kindle in the ref orm of education (p. 122). His philosophy of education emphasized many things including experiences, experimentation, and freedom. He believed the learner must interact with that which is well-educated if a productive educational experience was to be achieved (p. 122).Other pragmatic philosophers were Jean-Jacques Rousseau and Charles Darwin. The impact that pragmatism had on education is that the childs own instincts and powers provide the material and offset point of all education and the educators knowledge of social conditions is obligatory to interpret the childs powers. The philosophy of Existentialism is a revolt against other traditional philosophies. Others attempt to grasp the ultimate nature of the world in consider systems of thought existentialists consider what it is like to be an individual human being aliveness in the world (Kritsonis, p. 125).It is concerned with an individuals willingness truly to commit to something with lastingness (p. 127). A major contrib utor to Existentialism was Soren Kierkegaard who believed that a humans essential self is developed in three stages Aesthetic stage, ethical stage, and religious stage. He believed that individuals are confronted with choices in life that they solely can make and for which they must allow in complete and full responsibility (p. 127). Existentialism impact on education was to accent unique experiences in the affective and what a student hears in class is more impressive than what the teachers say.The Philosophy of education in the United States has undergone a series of national struggles over the outgoing 25 years. some(prenominal) of the struggle with philosophy in these redbrick times has been the issue of the curriculum of multicultural education. The multicultural movement defines the main purpose of curriculum as social improvement, in particular as it relates to peoples who have been marginalized on the prepossess of race, ethnicity, language, social class and other id entities (English tenet, paginate 122).Over time and through history philosophers have had to be adaptable to diverseness and that change in American included a multicultural movement. This movement includes the philosophy of Reconstructionism which involves the view toward change and encourages individuals to try to make life better which ultimately means every individual in all cultures (National Outlook, 2006). Philosophers of the future will have to find a way to inculcate mulitculturism into their ideas (educational Administration every quarter 1998, p. 236).multiculturalism is described as focusing on how gender, race, sexual orientation, and class differences are graven in political and cultural practices ( company College ledger of Research and Practice, 2000). Our schools are, in a sense, factories in which the raw products (children) are to be mold and fashioned into products to meet the various demands of life. The specifications for manufacturing come from the de mands of twentieth-century civilization and it is the business of the school to work out its pupils according to the specifications laid down (English Teaching, p. 25). We build our curriculum based off of past philosophers because of the beliefs our present curriculum decision makers may possess. Philosophy is concerned with questions about the compendium of concepts and with questions about the grounds of knowledge, belief, actions and activities. The philosophy of education is then occupied with the analysis of such educational concepts as teaching, child-centeredness, inculcation of belief and curriculum.The main point of contrast mingled with philosophy and education is the role of value judgments values and ideals are embodied and uttered in the purposes of imparting knowledge, skills and attitudes (Scandinavian daybook of educational Research, 2001). In conclusion, the question remains unanswered, atomic number 18 our schools headed in the right direction with its curric ulum? From past philosophers to present we have had a continuous confusion take place which continues to make curriculum hard to define.References full-grown Education Quarterly (1977). The Concept of Educational Need An Analysis of Selected Literature. 16-127 American Education Through the Civil War (Chapter 2). Community College Journal of Research and Practice (2000). student Experiences With Multicultural and Diversity Education. 531-546 English Teaching Practice and Critique (2004). diminutive Multicultural Curriculum and the Standards Movement. 122-138 Kritsonis, W (2005). Philosophies of Schooling. 82-159 Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research (2001). Some Notes on the Relevance of Philosophy to Education. 341-351 Siegel, H. (1988). Educating Reason Rationality, Critical Thinking, and Education. 369-382 http//en. wikepedia. org